Geospatial approaches for mapping zero-dose prevalence and routine childhood immunisation coverage in low- and lower-middle-income countries: A scoping review

Zero-dose (ZD) children remain a critical public health concern, especially in low- and lower-middle-income countries (LLMICs), where over 80% of the global ZD population lives, mostly among the most marginalised. Geospatial approaches have become effective tools for identifying and targeting immunisation gaps. However, no review has systematically documented the spatial methods used to predict or map ZD prevalence and routine immunisation (RI) coverage. This scoping review addresses this gap across LLMICs.